kcse P1 Q6






                    AFRICAN MORAL AND CULTURAL VALUES
1.     1990 Q 42
         a)  State the significance of the traditional African initiation rites.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
         b) Explain the role of the sponsor during tradition African circumcision ceremonies
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………....………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
2.     1991 Q 45
         Give factors that are affecting the traditional African heritage.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………







3.     1992 Q 46
        Explain reasons why myths are important in traditional African Communities
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
4.     1992 Q 4a, b
        (a) Discuss how the rites with initiation into adulthood express traditional African
              beliefs in life after death
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
 (b)  Ways in which ceremonies connected with death stress the importance of solidarity in
           traditional African communities 
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………....…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………


5.     1993 Q 23a, b
        a) Explain ways in which traditional African communities demonstrate their
            belief in life after death

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
        b) Explain why expectant mothers are given special treatment in traditional
             African communities.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………....…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
6.     1993 Q 5b
         b) Discuss the method of disciplining errant members in traditional African
             communities.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………....…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

7.     1994 Q 4a
         Discuss what were some methods used in teaching the truth in traditional African
         communities.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………....……………………………………………………………………………
8.     1994 Q 36
         Give the requirement which a man had to fulfil to become an elder.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
9.     1995 Q 36
        Give five reasons why the newly initiated young men lived together in a community for
        some time.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
10.  1995 Q 4a (pp 2)
           (a) Describe how wealth was acquired in traditional African communities   (5 marks)
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
11.   1996 Q 12
         State the duties of a traditional African community helped bereaved families   (5marks)
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
12.     1996 Q 13
State five ways in which people in the traditional Africa marriage.   (5marks)
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
13.     1996 Q 14
Give five reasons why courtship was as important aspect of traditional African marriage. (5marks)
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
14.     1996 Q 4(pp 2)
           a) Give reasons why cleansing rituals were performed in traditional African
Communities. (16marks)
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………....……………………………………………………………………
b) Explain the factors which promoted harmony in traditional African communities .
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………....…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
15.     1997 Q 14
        Identify five occasions when oaths were administered in traditional African Communities (5marks)
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
16.     1997 Q 15
         List occasions when the services of a medicine man were required in traditional                                                                                                                         
        African communities (5marks)
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
17.     1997 Q 4 (pp 2)
        a) Discuss the measures taken by the traditional African communities to discourage pregnancy before marriage. (12marks)
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
18.     1998 Q 11
        With reference to African traditional communities, state five factor that promote
   harmony and mutual responsibility in Kenya today. (5 marks)
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………....………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
19.     1998 Q 12
         Give five reasons why initiation rites were important in African traditional
     communities (5 marks)
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

20.     1998 Q 14
          State five reasons why, marriage in traditional African communities is regarded as a
          covenant (5 marks)
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
21.     1998 Q 15
         List five responsibilities of priests in traditional African communities . (5 marks)
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
22.     1998 Q 16
          Give reasons why taboos are important in traditional African communities   (5 marks)
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

23.     1999 Q 11
Identify five occasions when prayers were offered in traditional African Communities                                                                                                 
            (5 marks)
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

24.     1999 Q 12
          State five rituals marking the birth of child traditional African communities (5 marks)
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

25.     1999 Q 14
          List five factors that affected traditional African Education system (5 marks)

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
26.     1999 Q 4b (pp 2)
         (b) Give reasons why people work in traditional African Communities (5 marks)
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
27.     1999 Q 5b, c
(b) Give ways in which traditional African communities show respect for the unborn Child (6 marks)
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
 (c) Explain how a child learns to be part of the traditional community (10 marks)
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………....…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
28.     2000 Q 16
           Identify five African cultural expressions used in Christian worship today. (5 marks)
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
   
29.     2000 Q 5c (pp 2)
           a)How was marriage formalized in traditional African communities  (8marks)
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………....……………………………………………………………………………

           b) Why was polygamy common in traditional African communities. (8marks)

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
           c) State the role of parents in a traditional African family (9marks)
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………....…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………



30.     2001 Q 13
         State five reasons why the observance of the blood kinship is important in African traditional African societies. (5marks)
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
31.     2001 Q 14
Give five reasons why the birth of a child is a joyous event in traditional African Societies.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
32.     2001 Q 5 (pp 2)
           a) Explain the activities carried out in traditional African communities?          (6marks)
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
b) State ways through which the youth are traditional African communities?    (7marks)
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………....……………………………………………………………………………

c) What is the role of a grandfather in traditional African communities?  (6marks)
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

33.    2002 Q 5
           a) Give reasons why there was singing during the initiation ceremonies in
traditional African communities.  (12marks)
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………....…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

b) How were the initiates prepared for adult life in traditional African
communities? (7 marks)
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………....………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
c) Why do some traditional African communities practice ignition rites today. (6marks)
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
34.     2002 Q 12
         Give five reasons why oaths were administered in traditional Africa Communities                                         (5marks)
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
35.     2002 Q 14
         List five occasions when sacrifices were consulted in traditional African
         communities               (5marks)
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
36.     2002 Q 14
    State five factors that may hinder the traditional African practice of giving dowry. (5marks)
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………


37.     2003 Q 15
           State five roles of elders in traditional African communities. (5marks)
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
38.     2003 Q 16
Give five reasons why children are important in traditional African community
(5marks)
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
39.     2003 Q 5 a, c (pp 2)
            a) Give reasons why pre- marital pregnancies were rare in traditional African
communities. (12marks)
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………....……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
            c) What is the role of a midwife in traditional African communities? (5marks)
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
40.     2004 Q 11
          Give five reasons why a naming ceremony is important in traditional African communities. (5marks)
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
41.     2004 Q 12
Write down five ways of solving conflicts in traditional African communities.  (5marks)
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
42.     2004 Q 13
Name five specialists in traditional African communities (5marks)
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
43.     2004 Q 5a, b (pp 2)
          a) Outline ways through which a marriage partner is chosen in traditional
African communities (12marks)
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………....…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
b) Explain why divorce is rare in traditional African communities (6marks)

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
44.     2005 Q 11
          Write down five places where worship is carried out in traditional African communities. (5marks)
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
45.     2005 Q 12
Give five reasons why seclusion after child birth is important in traditional
 African communities. (5marks)
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
46.     2005 Q 13
List five duties of diviners in traditional African communities (5marks)
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
47.     2005 Q 14
Write down five reasons why disputes over land were rare in traditional
African communities. (5marks)
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
48.     2005 Q 5a,b ( pp 2)
          (a) Discuss the factors that promote harmony and mutual responsibility in
traditional African communities. (8 marks)
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………....……………………………………………………………………………
What changes are taking place in property ownership in traditional African communities (10 marks)
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………....…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………






49.     2006 Q 6
          (a) Explain the importance of rituals performed during a naming ceremony in
traditional African communities. (10 marks)
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………....…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Identify the moral values acquire during marriage in traditional African  communities ( 5 marks)
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Why is death feared in traditional African communities? ( 5 marks)
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
50.     2006 Q 1c
           (c) What are the consequences of breaking taboos in traditional African
 communities? ( 5 marks)
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
51.     2007 Q 6
          (a)  What changes have taken place in the rite of initiation in Kenya today?     (8marks)
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………....…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
          (b)  Identify moral values taught to the youths during initiation to adulthood in 
                 traditional African communities (6 marks)
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
         (c)Give reasons why female circumcision is being discouraged in Kenya today
                                                                                                                  (6 marks)
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
52.     2008 Q 6
          (a) Identify practices in Traditional African communities that show their beliefs                                                                                 
                in life after death                                                                  (8marks)
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………....…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
         (b) State six requirements that one had to fulfill to be made an elder in
               Traditional African society                                                                (6marks)
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
         (c) Identify the factors that are undermining the role of elders in Kenya today (6marks)
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
53.    2009 Q 2b
          (b)Give seven similarities between the Jewish and traditional African practice       
              of circumcision. (7 marks)
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
54.     2009 Q 6
          a) Outline six rituals performed during the birth of a baby in tradition Africa
       Communities. (6marks)
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
         (b)Give six reasons why children are important in traditional African communities                                                                    (6 marks) 
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
         (c)Explain four ways children are made responsible members in traditional
              African Communities
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
55.     2010 Q 3c
           (c)       Why is killing condemned in traditional African communities?                  (6 marks)
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
56.     2010 Q 6a,b
            (a) Name six places in which sacrifices are carried out in traditional African
                  communities. (6 marks)
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
           (b) Give seven reasons why sacrifices are made in traditional African communities.                                                              
                                      (7 marks)
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...……………………………………………………………………………
57.     2010 Q 5a ( pp 2)
          (a)       State four similarities between the Christian and traditional African view on
                      marriage.                                               (8 marks)
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
58.     2011 Q 6a
           a) Describe the traditional African view of a community.              (8 marks)   
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………....………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
59.     2011 Q 6b ( pp 2)
          b) State seven methods of disciplining errant members in traditional African
              communities.                                                                (7 marks)
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
60.    2012 Q6 P1
 (a) Describe five ways in which people in traditional African communities
      communicate with God.                                                                    (5marks)
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

(b) Give  eight reasons for singing and dancing during initiation ceremonies in
       traditional African communities.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

(c) Give seven reasons why witchcraft is feared in tradition African
      communities                                                                                      (7marks)
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
S

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